We will treat both but will begin with philosophical. The kind of Taoism practiced in the world today is religious Taoism, a form closely allied with ancient Chinese religious life and somewhat foreign to Latter-day Saint experience.
Philosophical Taoism, on the other hand, has several aspects which will feel familiar to members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Among scholars there is debate about the founder of philosophical Taoism to the extent that some question whether Lao Tzu, the traditional founding figure, even existed. Interestingly, modern scholars of religion have become more and more skeptical about knowing anything about the religious figures of the past.
This is true even of Jesus, many scholars claiming that the Gospels contain no historically accurate information about him. Thus for the purposes of this chapter, we will accept Lao Tzu as the founder of the philosophical Taoist school, and we will accept him as the author of the foundational text, the Tao Te Ching or Dao de Jing.
It seems that Lao Tzu held a government position, perhaps keeper of the royal archives. However, he became discouraged with society and decided to leave. Thus China was bordering on anarchy, and it seems to be this state of affairs with which Lao Tzu became disenchanted. Tradition holds that Lao Tzu mounted his black ox and left the city. As he arrived at the western pass, the gatekeeper stopped him, and when he discovered that Lao Tzu was leaving, he asked him to write down his thoughts.
In five thousand Chinese characters and eighty-one chapters, Lao Tzu wrote the Tao Te Ching , climbed back on his black ox, and disappeared into the sunset, never to be heard from again. Thus, there is no death date for him. In this chapter, we will use parts of the Tao Te Ching as well as parts of the Chuang Tzu to come to an understanding of philosophical Taoism. One of the reasons to treat Taoism after Confucianism is that Chuang Tzu liked to poke fun at the Confucianists, and if we reversed the order, we would miss some of his jokes.
As we have already noted, Eastern religions do not see reality as something that can be comprehended intellectually. Ultimate reality is to be experienced, not thought about in the abstract. We will also discover that some of the Tao Te Ching may seem contradictory to Western ears. In reality, it is not contradictory at all but rather complementary.
If we remember that yin and yang are complementary opposites and that everything contains within itself its opposite, then we will understand the Tao Te Ching. With philosophical Taoism, as with Zen Buddhism, we need to be prepared for a new experience. Lao Tzu, who was disenchanted with society, wrote the Tao Te Ching and departed, never to be heard of again.
Courtesy of Tommy Wong. Not too surprisingly, the Tao is the center of Taoism, but as we shall see, it is indefinable. We get a sense of this from the first chapter of the Tao Te Ching. The gateway to all mystery. As will be noted, Chuang Tzu often comments in story form.
I know that Tao can be high, can be low, can be centered and can be dispersed. These are some of the specifications that I know. Who is right? The former deals with the inner reality, the latter with appearance. Who knows this knowledge without knowing? Once again, in the event that something has been lost in translation, we will turn to another source for clarity. This is something even I can understand, because it gets down to the level where I live.
The commentator in this case is Winnie the Pooh. From the above, several things should be clear. From the first passage, we should be able to see that names cannot capture the Tao.
It is in and behind all things but is indefinable. When we do try to put names to it, all we do is name phenomena that arise from it.
The Tao is a mystery. From the Chuang Tzu passage and from Winnie the Pooh, we learn that reality is not captured by the intellect. Tao is something that transcends all definitions. A further passage gives a bit more insight into the Tao. It is older than the Ancestor. Here I would suggest as the meaning of this passage that we learn that all things arise from the Tao but that it is not sharp, complicated, or brilliant.
It is close to us where we live. It has no origin of its own. It is self-subsistent. Lin Yutang says this about the Tao. The Tao of the Taoist is the divine intelligence of the universe, the source of things, the life-giving principle; it informs and transforms all things; it is impersonal, impartial, and has little regard for individuals. Above all, the one important message of Taoism is the oneness and spirituality of the material universe.
A working definition might be as follows and notice this is a reversion : wu-wei means inaction or nonaction, which is the Taoist action by which all things are accomplished and the world is conquered. We can learn more about wu-wei from chapter 22 of the Tao Te Ching :.
Can contend with them. As we seek to understand wu-wei, we will begin with the portion which recommends noncontention. During a father-son overnight outing, I was not paying too much attention to what was going on with the boys. Suddenly, I realized that people were flying off the top of a nearby dirt pile. I looked and discovered that the boys were playing King of the Mountain with my son on top, and the rest of the boys were trying to get him off. My son today is a fifth-degree black belt in Kenpo Karate, and at that point he was pretty well advanced.
This was wu-wei—not meeting force with force but rather letting things take their natural course, which was clearly to his advantage. He never has to hang out a sign. So it is with the holy men and women of virtually any faith. Greatness is evident. This is wu-wei. Because bamboo bends. In a typhoon, bamboo bends before the wind but does not break, whereas steel or aluminum would bend permanently and henceforth be useless.
But as the natural force of the wind subsides, the bamboo straightens and is once more useful. And the world settles of itself. Imagine that you are standing by a stream and someone drops a huge boulder into it. What does the water do? It simply flows around the boulder. But what happens when someone drops a boulder into our stream? We are Westerners. We have to make deserts blossom like a rose, so we haul out the dynamite, the pickax, and the shovel and go to work on it.
Yet we cannot move it. It is too big and permanent. So are many things that are in our lives. No matter how badly we want them to go away—the divorce of our parents, the death of a friend or sibling, the failed class, the child that has gone astray—they are just simply there. We can either bang our heads against the problem until we have a headache, or we can be like the water, finding a creative way to flow around the problem.
That is wu-wei. Another passage from the Tao Te Ching teaches us that everything can be accomplished through wu-wei. And the world escapes you. This time, let us imagine a wide river. On one side of me is a Confucianist and on the other is a philosophical Taoist. Both want to get to the other side of the river; notice that for the Taoist, wu-wei does not mean that he or she does not have desires. In this case, the person just wants to get to the other side of a rather large river.
So, how is the Confucianist going to swim this river? For a Confucianist, everything has to be done according to Li in the proper way. On top of this, he is a good Euclidian, and, remembering the first theorem he learned on the first day of geometry, he knows that the shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
Thus, he dives in and swims straight across the river and flops on the opposite bank utterly exhausted from the effort. How will the Taoist swim the river? By wu-wei, of course. She will wander into the river, letting the current catch her. She will paddle a bit with her hands and feet but not exert herself.
In a little while she ends up two miles downstream, and she gets out, goes on her way refreshed, while the Confucianist is still lying on the bank upstream recovering. Remember that wu-wei may mean inaction or nonaction, but it is the Taoist action. Taoist action is nonegoistic and in natural harmony with the Tao. Nothing is ever forced, for force defeats itself. There is a natural flow and harmony to all things, and to be out of harmony with that flow is harmful.
In true harmony with the flow, everything is possible. Says Chuang Tzu By a man without passions I mean one who does not permit likes and dislikes to disturb his internal economy, but rather falls in line with nature and does not try to improve upon [the materials of ] living.
Once again, to our Western ears this sounds almost blasphemous! Not try to improve on the materials of life? What about the Protestant work ethic? Remember that the desert was supposed to blossom? But I wonder if these attitudes really capture the essence of life. I wonder if we in the West truly understand what happiness is. Happiness is something which we find within ourselves and which we carry with us. I pity the person who must be married to be happy, because the marriage likely will not last.
The partners will always disappoint one another in some way. If persons want a successful marriage, they need to be happy single, and then there is a real possibility for being happy plural because they have found their own happiness inwardly.
Mistakenly, we tend to live as if we will live forever. We live as if we have forever to find happiness. We live in the search but rarely in the moment. It is to live in the moment that philosophical Taoism teaches us. The past is over. Daoist theory does introduces the tokens most dramatically with Shen Dao who focuses on what he calls Great Dao—the actual history of the world past, present and future.
That image draws our attention to a purely descriptive way—a way that is not a normative way not a guide. That we can never free normative ways from ways of choosing and interpreting them. We are in a sea of dao. Besides the Great Dao the actual history of the universe , we can speak of tian nature:sky daos , which are also descriptive. Dao s that advise us to accept or live by our nature, in effect, choose among equally natural dao s. Since we have natural ways to reform or compensate for our natures.
Any dao we can choose or interpret is natural in the sense that it has for us at the time some physical realization—sound waves or pixels on a computer screen.
All dao s available for choice or recommendation are natural. If determinism is true, the Great Dao is the only tian nature:sky dao and every available dao for normative choice is a proper part of Great Dao.
Thus de links dao with correct performance. The character ming names really includes all words. Grammatically, Chinese common nouns share more features with proper names and one-place predicates transitive verbs and adjectives than do familiar Indo-European nouns.
Chinese common nouns lack case and gender markings and Chinese grammar requires no grammatical noun-verb agreement. Like mass nouns, Chinese common nouns do not undergo pluralization and can stand alone as noun phrases. For related reasons, Chinese analysis postulated no substance-attribute structure to adjective-noun relations.
Each names a region or part of the world. The most familiar statement of a widely shared implicit theory of names in ancient China is expressed beautifully in the Daode Jing. To learn and understand a word is to know what is and what is not picked out by it.
In the Daode Jing , the theory lends itself to a linguistic idealist interpretation. An interesting near homonym is ming command-fate which was routinely used as a verbal form of ming names. Another meaning-related near homonym is ming discerning:clear. There is less controversy about the meaning of chang constant , but its uses and importance in Chinese thought are not well understood. We can better appreciate the uses of chang constant in ancient Chinese by analogy with causal and reliability theories in epistemology and semantics.
He pointed to a related use in the Mozi which advocates that we should chang constant language that promotes [good? This quasi-imperative use underlies its role in Daoist relativistic and skeptical analysis. The Daode Jing has the most famous example of its use in the parallel opening couplet where it modifies both dao and ming names. Mohist use of the concept is instructive.
Tian nature:sky is a paradigm of constancy. The Mohists alluded to its regularity and universality to contrast with the temporary and local authority of social conventions and guidance by authority. They cast their disagreement with Confucians in terms of who offered a constant dao.
This seems to bridge three measures of constancy. Daoists, as the Laozi famously puts it, suggest that any dao that can dao guide or be used as a guide will not be a constant dao. It follows this claim with a parallel claims about ming names.
Any name that can name is an inconstant name. This is arguably offered as the explanation of the inconstancy of dao asserted in the earlier sentence. The first character is not the main problem. In modern Mandarin, the character has two different tones. So a belief that S is P takes the de re form [believer] takes S to be wei P.
Ancient Chinese has several meaning-related homonyms, including wei is-only , wei to be called , and wei artificial. The cluster of concepts correspond to the pivotal Daoist contrast between tian nature and ren the human. Little in the Laozi or earlier Chinese thought suggests any development of a distinction between voluntary, deliberate, or purposive action and its opposite.
The most famous expression of this ideal comes in the paean to the butcher who carved oxen with the grace of a dancer. Such behavior requires a focus and absorption that is incompatible with ordinary self-consciousness, purpose and rehearsal of instructions. Besides this loss of a sense of the ego, the experience is credited with creating a unity between the actor and the external world, and with a sense of heightened awareness and tranquility that comes with the masterful practice of an acquired skill.
Being a scholar-official is as much a skill as being a butcher and one may practice it with the same attitude of inner emptiness. Neo-Daoists conform to Confucian roles without regarding or interpreting them as ultimately right—or as anything else.
With the importation of Indo-European Buddhism from India, wu-wei started to be interpreted via the Western conceptual apparatus contrasting desire or purpose and reason. This shaped the modern Chinese interpretation and probably undermined the ideal.
The activist 19 th century reformer, Kang You -wei Kang have- wei took the denial of the slogan as his scholarly name. It metaphorically represents the result of forgetting ming names and desires See Wu-wei. When societies adopt names or terms, it does so in order to instill and regulate desires for one of the pair created by the name-induced distinction.
Thus Daoist forgetting requires forgetting names and distinctions, but in doing so, frees itself from the socially induced, unnatural desires that cause strife and unhappiness in society e. Questions of textual theory are the focus of the bulk of modern scholarship. They include these kinds of questions.
This effectively replaces philosophical content with mythical narrative and claims of pedigree or status of the founder. This aversion to exposition is compounded with the traditional view that Daoist philosophy defies rational clarification. This philosophical site, accordingly, will give only abbreviated attention to these textual theories. The traditional story centers on Laozi and the Daode Jing. It credits the text to Laozi who was stopped at the pass while attempting to leave China to go to India and come to be known as Buddha.
The keeper of the pass required him to leave his dao behind so Laozi dashed off odd quick characters of poetry. Zhuangzi inherited the insights and developed the Daoist outlook in parable form. Modern text detectives, Chinese and Western, have successfully cast doubt on this traditional view. However, their alternative scenarios, while collectively more plausible than the traditional story, are diverse enough to lead a skeptic to conclude that no one knows the correct textual theories—even if some of them turn out to be true.
Textual theorists themselves tend more toward interpretive skepticism. They argue that textual theory is prior to and more certain than interpretation—which they treat as subjective projection. They would reject textual skepticism as defeatism and as self-defeating for an interpretive theorist. Current textual thinking tends toward the view that all the classical Chinese texts were being continuously edited and maintained in textual communities over sometimes hundreds of years.
This editing and emendation often reflected interaction with other text communities as they worked out alternative answers to shared questions. Text selection for interpretive and theoretical purposes becomes a more normative issue—which text is best? Textual theory was further complicated when archeologists unearthed new copies of the Daode Jing. The traditionally dominant text was named after one of the earliest commentators—the Wang Bi version.
Most translations deviated only slightly from that traditional version prior to the first archeological discovery in In that year, two versions of the Daode Jing were unearthed in a Mawang Dui tomb site.
The discovery energized textual theorists who reasoned that as the earliest physically extant text, the Mawang Dui must be closer to the original should be treated as authoritative. The discovery was quickly followed by a rash of new translations of the Dedao Jing the two parts of the text were reversed in the newly discovered manuscripts.
The argument for its authoritative status was weak. In fact, the discovery tended to confirm the evolutionary, multiple-editor view, while this enthusiasm treated textual evolution as if it took place by successive operations on a single physical text item. Wang Bi probably had access to a range of that population in selecting his version. The archeological discovery was of a single instance—a branch of the stream. The historical circumstances of the presumed time of burial further undermined the optimistic assumption that the Mawang Dui was the original.
The Qin had set out to destroy traditional learning. The later Han ostensibly cherished and tried to recover textual scholarship. In the succeeding Han, text collection, veneration preservation and copying became the norm. The theory that the Mawang Dui was the authoritative text assumes that the destructive political frenzy at the end of classical period had not affected the integrity of transmission that produced the Mawang Dui instances.
Then it must insist that in the succeeding period of textual veneration and preservation, radical changes were introduced into the entire population of copies and versions of the text so that all those on which Wang Bi drew on after the Han were corrupted—and in similar ways—from the orthodox Mawang Dui version. The opposite story is more probable—the sample was a version written with punctuation and interpretive emendation for a member of the superstitious ruling class.
Taking it as representing of the whole population of texts at the time is an elementary sampling error. The Mawang Dui fervor was further undermined in when another discovery of a still older pair of abridged texts dating from before BCE turned out to be more like the traditional text the order of selection reflected the traditional daode arrangement.
Even more notably, it strongly confirmed the gradual accretion view of the text suggesting that the Daode Jing was still in the process of being compiled at that late date.
This locates the composition of the Daode Jing and the Zhuangzi almost side-by-side. On the other hand, there is little positive evidence that he did and there are many alternative stories of how he came to be regarded as the author of the Daode Jing. The issues, however, are also separate. Laozi could have existed and not written any of the text attributed to him. On balance, the existence of Zhuangzi is considerably more probable, though little is known of him that is not from the text bearing his name—many of whose stories are obviously fanciful.
In China today, parts of the traditional theory have been resurrected. Some scholars are arguing for a pre-Confucius date for Laozi on various textual grounds especially poetic structure. So far, one important implication of modern textual theory has had little effect on popular interpretations. If we inevitably rely on the stories in the Zhuangzi — for our knowledge about him , then the known chief intellectual influence on Zhuangzi should be treated as the sophist and linguistic theorist, Hui Shi, not Laozi or the Daode Jing.
Textual theories of the Zhuangzi are more elaborate and consistent. Though they differ in details and identification of parts, text scholars largely converge on attributing the chapters, outside of the eight assigned to Zhuangzi himself, to students of Zhuangzi, to primitivists who are associated with Yang Zhu Yangists , and to other more eclectic and religious writers associated probably with the production of the other texts associated with Daoism.
Probably the association of the Laozi and Zhuangzi texts began when students of Zhuangzi noticed some shared or reinforcing themes expressed in a contemporary anonymous textual group working on the evolving Daode Jing. Perhaps both groups appreciated the affinity and began to exchange themes, expressions, and related lines of thought.
This is a rough table of the state of textual theories of the two defining texts of Daoism. There are four main questions; the table lists, for each question, the traditional story, the range of theories, and the most plausible answer to the question. Essentially the upshot is that they borrowed heavily from the two classical texts, often changing the context and failing to understand the philosophical point. The quotations they used were embedded in popular cosmological and religious contexts.
The most influential treatments of Daoism are those that place their discussion in more general accounts of Chinese Philosophy. Some important ones are:. More focused treatments develop sometimes classic and sometimes controversial lines of interpretation of philosophical Daoism.
These often disagree with each other so none is definitive but notable contributions include:. Collection of articles mainly focus on Zhuangzi. Some of the focused discussions are found in such collections which include:. Interpretive theories are presented most systematically in translations, but there are too many to list here and most tend to religious lines of interpretation.
Some of the more influential philosophical translations of the key texts include:. Religious treatments vastly outnumber the philosophical. Here, we will list only a representative sample. Discussion of textual issues is a major focus of scholarly activity.
Modern textual theories have influenced interpretation particularly of the philosophical content. Some examples include:. Definition of Daoism 2. Philosophical Daoism: A Primer 3.
Origins of Daoist Theory 4. Impact of the School of Names 6. Mature Daoism: The Zhuangzi 7. Neo Daoism 8. Daoism and Buddhism 9. Important Daoist Concepts Philosophical Daoism: A Primer Ancient Chinese thinkers discussed mainly three parts of dao : human or social dao, tian natural dao , and great dao. The Origins of Daoism 3. The negative result may be read in several ways.
It may be pure nihilism—there is no such thing as correct dao. It may be skepticism—correct dao can never be known; Or as anti-language—correct dao cannot be put in words or conveyed as guidance to another. Impact of the School of Names One stark difference between the two main texts of Daoism is the relation to the School of Names.
Mature Daoism: The Zhuangzi From internal evidence, we would judge Hui Shi to have had much more influence on Zhuangzi than his knowledge of Laozi or of the contents of the Daode Jing as we know it. Neo-Daoism The establishment of an authoritarian empire and the long-lived but philosophically dogmatic Confucian Han dynasty temporarily drained the vibrancy from Chinese philosophical thought. Daoism and Buddhism Buddhism came to China at a time when the intellectuals were hungry for fresh ideas, but it arrived with massive handicaps.
Important Daoist Concepts Some important concepts that have played a role in the doctrines of Daoism are: 9. A constant dao should apply equally to people of all cultures, times, and levels of social development. A constant dao should be operationally unambiguous—like measurements operations. Its interpretation into action should not invite variability. A constant dao should be consistent with natural tendencies; it should reinforce and draws reinforcement from them rather than encounter resistance in practice.
Texts and Textual History Questions of textual theory are the focus of the bulk of modern scholarship. Existence did Laozi or Zhuangzi actually exist Authorship did they write the texts attributed to them?
Dating when did they exist or write their texts? Relations did Laozi influence Zhuangzi? Existence Traditional story : Laozi and Zhuangzi like teacher-student or prophet-disciple. Range of theories : Zhuangzi inspired the formulation of the myth of Laozi and the attribution. Most plausible answer : Zhuangzi knew only the Confucian story of Laozi. Zhuangzi wrote the Zhuangzi. Range of theories : Zhuangzi wrote only chapter two. Daode Jing a product of Huang-Lao ruler-mysticism. Most plausible answer : Both books the product of textual communities who continually edit and add to the text.
Zhuangzi wrote at most eight chapters. Zhuangzi inspired to expand on its mystical insight. Range of theories : Daode Jing being edited well into the Han dynasty. Miscellaneous and Outer chapters of the Zhuangzi edited or composed into the Han. Most plausible answer : Both being edited through and beyond the classical period. Range of theories : Zhuangzi formulated his theories first and the chief influence was his sophist friend Hui Shi.
Most plausible answer : Textual communities began to borrow from each other after the inner chapters completed. Some important ones are: Fung, Yu-lan History of Chinese Philosophy.
Princeton: Princeton University Press. Beginning to be more controversial. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought. New York: Oxford University Press. The Concept of Man in Early China.
Stanford University Press, Stanford, Science and civilisation in China, vol. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. These often disagree with each other so none is definitive but notable contributions include: Alt, Wayne Chen, Ellen Marie Cook, Scott Creel, Hurlee G. What is Taoism?
Cua, Antonio S. Fu, Charles Wei-hsun Hall, David L. Hansen, Chad Mair ed. Graham, Angus Kasulis, T. Kupperman, Joel J. Lau, D. Roth, Harold D. Smullyan, Raymond Van Norden, Bryan Watts, Alan Wilson Reprinted Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, , pp. Welch, Holmes Wong, David Yearley, Lee Mair, ed. Kjellberg and P. Ivanhoe eds. Ziporyn, Brook Collections Collection of articles mainly focus on Zhuangzi.
Some of the focused discussions are found in such collections which include: Mair, Victor ed. Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu. Ames, Roger ed. Kjellberg Paul and P. Cook, Scott ed. Translations Interpretive theories are presented most systematically in translations, but there are too many to list here and most tend to religious lines of interpretation. Some of the more influential philosophical translations of the key texts include: Carus, Paul Chen, Guying Duyvendak, J. Henricks, Robert G.
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